Определение терроризма
Oct. 18th, 2001 03:54 pm![[personal profile]](https://www.dreamwidth.org/img/silk/identity/user.png){kind=small}
borislvinВсплыл разговор об определении терроризма. Есть достаточно детальный обзор этой проблемы, статья Ганора "Defining terrorism", 1998-го года.
Ее адрес - http://www.ict.org.il/articles/articledet.cfm?articleid=49
В частности, там говорится:
In their book Political Terrorism, Schmidt and Youngman cited 109 different definitions of terrorism, which they obtained in a survey of leading academics in the field.
<...>
The definition proposed here states that terrorism is the intentional use of, or threat to use violence against civilians or against civilian targets, in order to attain political aims. This definition is based on three important elements:
1.The essence of the activity—the use of, or threat to use, violence. According to this definition, an activity that does not involve violence or a threat of violence will not be defined as terrorism (including non-violent protest—strikes, peaceful demonstrations, tax revolts, etc.).
2.The aim of the activity is always political—namely, the goal is to attain political objectives; changing the regime, changing the people in power, changing social or economic policies, etc. In the absence of a political aim, the activity in quest will not be defined as terrorism. A violent activity against civilians that has no political aim is, at most, an act of criminal delinquency, a felony, or simply an act of insanity unrelated to terrorism. Some scholars tend to add ideological or religious aims to the list of political aims. The advantage of this definition, however, is that it is as short and exhaustive as possible. The concept of “political aim” is sufficiently broad to include these goals as well. The motivation—whether ideological, religious, or something else—behind the political objective is irrelevant for the purpose of defining terrorism.
3.The targets of terrorism are civilians. Terrorism is thus distinguished from other types of political violence (guerrilla warfare, civil insurrection, etc.). Terrorism exploits the relative vulnerability of the civilian “underbelly”—the tremendous anxiety, and the intense media reaction evoked by attacks against civilian targets. The proposed definition emphasizes that terrorism is not the result of an accidental injury inflicted on a civilian or a group of civilians who stumbled into an area of violent political activity, but stresses that this is an act purposely directed against civilians. Hence, the term “terrorism” should not be ascribed to collateral damage to civilians used as human shields or to cover military activity or installations, if such damage is incurred in an attack originally aimed against a military target. In this case, the responsibility for civilian casualties is incumbent upon whoever used them as shields.
Дается следующая диаграмма:
Если развить эту логику (на мой взгляд, правильную), то надо обратить внимание, что "госслужащие" делятся на две категории - те, кто причастны к совершению насильственных (военных и полицейских) действий, и все остальные. Действительно, ведь генералы непосредственно не воюют и не убивают, они только отдают приказы, но это не мешает им попадать в категорию "military". Соответственно, нападения на министров, премьеров, президентов и т.д. - это акт партизанской борьбы (guerilla), а нападения на врачей и учителей - терроризм.
Заодно - еще одна цитата оттуда же:
Without a definition of terrorism, it is impossible to formulate or enforce international agreements against terrorism. A conspicuous example of the need to define terrorism concerns the extradition of terrorists. Although many countries have signed bilateral and multilateral agreements concerning a variety of crimes, extradition for political offenses is often explicitly excluded, and the background of terrorism is always political. This loophole allows many countries to shirk their obligation to extradite individuals wanted for terrorist activities. It isn’t only countries like Italy and France that have refrained from extraditing terrorists, adducing political motives. In the U.S. too, in June 1988, a Brooklyn judge rejected the plea of a federal prosecutor requesting the extradition of Abed El Atta (an American citizen suspected of participating in an attack against a bus in the West Bank in April 1986, in which four people were killed). The judge stated that this attack was a “political act,” part of the uprising in the occupied territories, and instrumental in the attainment of the PLO’s “political aims.” “In the West Bank, today’s rebels could be tomorrow’s rulers.” According to the judge, this is a “political charge,” excluded from the category of crimes included in the extradition treaty between Israel and the United States.
Ее адрес - http://www.ict.org.il/articles/articledet.cfm?articleid=49
В частности, там говорится:
In their book Political Terrorism, Schmidt and Youngman cited 109 different definitions of terrorism, which they obtained in a survey of leading academics in the field.
<...>
The definition proposed here states that terrorism is the intentional use of, or threat to use violence against civilians or against civilian targets, in order to attain political aims. This definition is based on three important elements:
1.The essence of the activity—the use of, or threat to use, violence. According to this definition, an activity that does not involve violence or a threat of violence will not be defined as terrorism (including non-violent protest—strikes, peaceful demonstrations, tax revolts, etc.).
2.The aim of the activity is always political—namely, the goal is to attain political objectives; changing the regime, changing the people in power, changing social or economic policies, etc. In the absence of a political aim, the activity in quest will not be defined as terrorism. A violent activity against civilians that has no political aim is, at most, an act of criminal delinquency, a felony, or simply an act of insanity unrelated to terrorism. Some scholars tend to add ideological or religious aims to the list of political aims. The advantage of this definition, however, is that it is as short and exhaustive as possible. The concept of “political aim” is sufficiently broad to include these goals as well. The motivation—whether ideological, religious, or something else—behind the political objective is irrelevant for the purpose of defining terrorism.
3.The targets of terrorism are civilians. Terrorism is thus distinguished from other types of political violence (guerrilla warfare, civil insurrection, etc.). Terrorism exploits the relative vulnerability of the civilian “underbelly”—the tremendous anxiety, and the intense media reaction evoked by attacks against civilian targets. The proposed definition emphasizes that terrorism is not the result of an accidental injury inflicted on a civilian or a group of civilians who stumbled into an area of violent political activity, but stresses that this is an act purposely directed against civilians. Hence, the term “terrorism” should not be ascribed to collateral damage to civilians used as human shields or to cover military activity or installations, if such damage is incurred in an attack originally aimed against a military target. In this case, the responsibility for civilian casualties is incumbent upon whoever used them as shields.
Дается следующая диаграмма:
Если развить эту логику (на мой взгляд, правильную), то надо обратить внимание, что "госслужащие" делятся на две категории - те, кто причастны к совершению насильственных (военных и полицейских) действий, и все остальные. Действительно, ведь генералы непосредственно не воюют и не убивают, они только отдают приказы, но это не мешает им попадать в категорию "military". Соответственно, нападения на министров, премьеров, президентов и т.д. - это акт партизанской борьбы (guerilla), а нападения на врачей и учителей - терроризм.
Заодно - еще одна цитата оттуда же:
Without a definition of terrorism, it is impossible to formulate or enforce international agreements against terrorism. A conspicuous example of the need to define terrorism concerns the extradition of terrorists. Although many countries have signed bilateral and multilateral agreements concerning a variety of crimes, extradition for political offenses is often explicitly excluded, and the background of terrorism is always political. This loophole allows many countries to shirk their obligation to extradite individuals wanted for terrorist activities. It isn’t only countries like Italy and France that have refrained from extraditing terrorists, adducing political motives. In the U.S. too, in June 1988, a Brooklyn judge rejected the plea of a federal prosecutor requesting the extradition of Abed El Atta (an American citizen suspected of participating in an attack against a bus in the West Bank in April 1986, in which four people were killed). The judge stated that this attack was a “political act,” part of the uprising in the occupied territories, and instrumental in the attainment of the PLO’s “political aims.” “In the West Bank, today’s rebels could be tomorrow’s rulers.” According to the judge, this is a “political charge,” excluded from the category of crimes included in the extradition treaty between Israel and the United States.
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Date: 2001-10-18 01:42 pm (UTC)no subject
Date: 2001-10-18 02:18 pm (UTC)Ïîñëåäíþþ öèòàòó ÿ ïðèâåë ïðîñòî êàê ïîêàçàòåëüíûé ïðèìåð òîãî, ÷òî áûâàåò - îñîáåííî ïîó÷èòåëüíûé â ñâåòå íûíåøíèõ ñîáûòèé. Ïîíÿòíî, ÷òî íàèâíîé óâåðåííîñòè â òîì, ÷òî ïðàâèëüíîå îïðåäåëåíèå ðåøèò ïîëèòè÷åñêèå è èäåîëîãè÷åñêèå ïðîáëåìû, ó ìåíÿ íåò è áûòü íå ìîæåò.
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Date: 2001-10-19 07:09 am (UTC)no subject
Date: 2001-10-18 02:32 pm (UTC)Ìîæíî ëè íàïàäàòü íà íà÷àëüíèêà ÷àñòíîé ôèðìû, ïðîèçâîäÿùåé åäó äëÿ àðìèè? Íà äèðåêòîðà ñòîëîâîé, ãäå îôèöåðû êóøàþò; îáùåæèòèÿ, ãäå îíè ñïÿò? Íà æåíó ãåíåðàëà X, êîòîðûé â ñòîëîâóþ íå õîäèò, à îáåäàòü åçäèò äîìîé, åìó æåíà îáåä ãîòîâèò?
Çà ýòèìè âîïðîñàìè ñòîèò ìîå îùóùåíèå, ÷òî âñå âûøåïåðå÷èñëåííûå (à òàêæå, íàïðèìåð, ìèëèòàðèñöêè íàñòðîåííûé äåïóòàò ïàðëàìåíòà, àêòèâèñò ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ïàðòèè, ïîääåðæèâàþùåé âîéíó, è ò.ä.) íà ñàìîì äåëå ãîðàçäî áîëåå ïðè÷àñòíû ê ãîñóäàðñòâåííîìó íàñèëèþ, ÷åì 18-ëåòíèé ñîëäàò-ñðî÷íèê, ñèëîé âûòàùåííûé èç äîìó, îäåòûé â ôîðìó è íåìåäëåííî áðîøåííûé â çîíó áîåâûõ äåéñòâèé.
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Date: 2001-10-18 03:04 pm (UTC)(ññûëêà)
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Date: 2001-10-18 08:43 pm (UTC)no subject
Date: 2001-10-19 05:45 am (UTC)no subject
Date: 2001-10-20 04:37 am (UTC)Ðîññèéñêèå áîìáèñòû, ÍÌÂ è ïðî÷. - ãîðîäñêèå ïàðòèçàíû
Êàêîå-íèáóäü ôðàíöóçñêîå ñîïðîòèâëåíèå âðåìåí WW2, äà è ðîññèéñêîå òîæå - òåððîðèñòû, òàê êàê îñíîâíàÿ öåëü - êîëëîáîðàíòû=ìèðíîå íàñåëåíèå.
Ìîæíî ñêîëüêî óãîäíî ñòðîèòü íàäóìàííûõ îïðåäåëåíèé òèïà øïèîí îí - øòàòñêèé è ñ óñàìè, à ðàçâåä÷èê - îôèöåð è ïîáðèò ñîãëàñíî óñòàâó, òîëüêî â ÷åì ñìûñë.
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Date: 2001-10-18 11:06 pm (UTC)Ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, íàïàäåíèÿ íà ìèíèñòðîâ, ïðåìüåðîâ, ïðåçèäåíòîâ è ò.ä. - ýòî àêò ïàðòèçàíñêîé áîðüáû (guerilla), à íàïàäåíèÿ íà âðà÷åé è ó÷èòåëåé - òåððîðèçì.
Çàìå÷àòåëüíî. À íàïàäåíèå íà íà÷àëüíèêà ãîðîíî ? À íà çàììèíèñòðà ? À íà ìèíèñòðà, íå ÿâëÿþùåãîñÿ ïîëèòè÷åñêèì íàçíà÷åíöåì ? À íà äèðåêòîðà êîìïàíèè, âîçíàìåðèâøåãîñÿ äîáûâàòü íåôòü òàì, ãäå òåððîðèñòû ñ÷èòàþò íåóìåñòíûì ?
Áîëåå ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíîå îïðåäåëåíèå äîëæíî áûëî áû îïèðàòüñÿ íà ðàçëè÷åíèå ìåæäó äåéñòâóþùèìè ("ïðèíîñÿùèìè âðåä" òåððîðèñòàì) è "íåâèííûìè" ãðàæäàíàìè. Íî òóò ìû íåìåäëåííî ïðèõîäèì ê ïðîáëåìå âåðèôèöèðóåìîñòè - "òû âèíîâàò óæ òåì, ÷òî õî÷åòñÿ ìíå êóøàòü".
Ñàìî ñóùåñòâîâàíèå òåððîðèñòîâ ãîâîðèò î òîì, ÷òî â îáùåñòâå ñóùåñòâóþò íåñîâìåñòèìûå òî÷êè çðåíèÿ íà ïðàâî. Êñòàòè, ñîâåðøåííî íèîòêóäà íå ñëåäóåò, ÷òî íàäî ïûòàòüñÿ ñîâìåñòèòü òàêèå òî÷êè çðåíèÿ - îäíè ìîãóò ñ÷èòàòü, ÷òî íåïðèìåðèìûì íàäî äàòü îòäåëèòüñÿ, äðóãèå - ÷òî èõ íàäî óíè÷òîæàòü, åñëè îòêàçûâàþòñÿ âåñòè ñåáÿ öèâèëèçîâàííî, íî òîëüêî ïîëíûé èäèîò-ìóëüòèêóëüòóðàëèñò ìîæåò ñ÷èòàòü, ÷òî âñåãäà è ñî âñåìè ìîæíî óæèòüñÿ.
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Date: 2001-10-19 12:42 am (UTC)Ïî "îáû÷íîìó ïðàâó" âåäåíèÿ âîåííûæ äåéñòâèé, êîòîðîå áîëåå-ìåíåå ñîáëþäàëîñü ñî ñðåäíåâåêîâüÿ, êîìáàòàíò íîñèò ôîðìó (íó èëè õîòü êàêèå-òî çíàêè îòëè÷èÿ, õîòü ïîâÿçêó íà ëáó) è âîþåò ïîä ôëàãîì. Íàðóøåíèÿ ýòîãî ïðàâèëà (äíåì ìèðíûé àáðèêîñ, à íî÷üþ âîîðóæåííûé óðþê) êîíå÷íî, âñòðå÷àëèñü, íî âñå-òàêè êâàëèôèöèðîâàëèñü êàê âåðîëîìñòâî è, â îòëè÷èå îò ñîáñòâåííî âîéíû, ñ÷èòàëèñü ïðåñòóïëåíèåì.
Îòäåëüíûå ïîïîëçíîâåíèÿ íà ýòó ñèñòåìó âñòðå÷àëèñü åùå â XIX âåêå, íî ïîëíîå åå ðàçëîæåíèå - ïëîäû âåêà XX, ïðè÷åì ðàçëîæåíèå øëî ñ îáîèõ ñòîðîí, êàê ñî ñòîðîíû îòðèöàíèÿ ëåãèòèìíîñòè âåäåíèÿ âîéíû "êîìáàòàíòàìè", òàê è ñî ñòîðîíû ïðèçíàíèÿ íàñèëèÿ, òâîðèìîãî "íîíêîìáàòàíòàìè", âîéíîé.  ïðîäóêòàõ ðàçëîæåíèÿ ìû (êàê Ðîññèÿ ñ ×å÷íåé, òàê è ÑØÀ ñ Áèí Ëàäåíîì), ñîáñòâåííî, ñåé÷àñ è ñèäèì ïî óøè.
Îïÿòü æå, òîëüêî â ñîâðåìåííîì "áîëüøîì ãîñóäàðñòâå" âðà÷ è ó÷èòåëü ÿâëÿþòñÿ ãîñ. ñëóæàùèìè è ìîãóò áûòü ïðè æåëàíèè ïðè÷èñëåíû ê êîìáàòàíòàì.
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Date: 2001-10-19 05:57 am (UTC)The proposed definition emphasizes that terrorism is not the result of an accidental injury inflicted on a civilian or a group of civilians who stumbled into an area of violent political activity, but stresses that this is an act purposely directed against civilians. Hence, the term terrorism should not be ascribed to collateral damage to civilians used as human shields or to cover military activity or installations, if such damage is incurred in an attack originally aimed against a military target. In this case, the responsibility for civilian casualties is incumbent upon whoever used them as shield.
Ïûòàòüñÿ ïðîâåñòè àáñîëþòíóþ ãðàíèöó áåññìûñëåííî. Ýòî êàê ãðàíèöà ìåæäó ñîëäàòîì â ñòðîþ è ñîëäàòîì â óâîëüíåíèè, çà ìèíóòó äî äåìáåëÿ, ÷åðåç ìèíóòó ïîñëå äåìáåëÿ è ò.ä. Íå â òùàòåëüíîñòè ãðàíèöû äåëî.
Êîíå÷íî, òåððîð â íûíåøíåì ïîíèìàíèè íå âñåãäà ðàâíîçíà÷åí òåððîðó â ñòàðèííîì ñìûñëå - íàïðèìåð, ïîêóøåíèÿ íà öàðåé, íà Ïëåâå, Ñóäåéêèíà, â. êí. Ñåðãåÿ è ò.ä. îòíîñÿòñÿ ê äðóãîé êàòåãîðèè, ÷åì âçðûâ øêîëû èëè ñàìîëåòà, õîòÿ áû è ñòðàäàëè ñëó÷àéíûå ïðîõîæèå. Ïîâòîðÿþ, äëÿ ìåíÿ ýòî î÷åâèäíî.
Ïðè ýòîì äàííîå îïðåäåëåíèå íå ïðåäïîëàãàåò àâòîìàòè÷åñêîé ñàíêöèè íà äåéñòâèÿ "ïàðòèçàí-ïîäïîëüùèêîâ" èëè âîåííûõ. Ïðîñòî ðàçäåëÿåò ìóõè è êîòëåòû.
Íàñ÷åò êîìáàòàíòîâ è ò.ä. Âñå ýòî î÷åíü õîðîøî, ïîêà åñòü ãîñóäàðñòâî, îáåñïå÷èâàþùåå ôîðìîé è ñàíêöèåé. À åñëè åãî, îòäåëüíîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà, íåò - óæå íåò èëè åùå íåò? Åñëè óñòàíîâëåí îêêóïàöèîííûé ðåæèì?
Êàêèå-íèáóäü èñïàíñêèå ãâåðèëüÿñû íàïîëåîíîâñêèõ âðåìåí, ýòåðèñòû â äóíàéñêèõ êíÿæåñòâàõ, òèòîâñêèå ïàðòèçàíû, áîëãàðñêèå ÷åòíèêè 1876 ãîäà - ýòî ïàðòèçàíû èëè òåððîðèñòû? Îòâåò ÿñåí.
Äûê!
Òàê ÿ èìåííî ïðî òî è ãîâîðþ: â âàøåì îïðåäåëåíèè, òåððîðèñò îïðåäåëÿåòñÿ êàê òîò, êòî öåëåíàïðàâëåííî âîþåò ïðîòèâ öèâèëîâ (è, êñòàòè, äåéñòâèòåëüíî, ïî ýòîìó îïðåäåëåíèþ Óëüÿíîâ-ñòàðøèé è C. âïîëíå ñåáå guerillia). Íî ñïðàøèâàåòñÿ çàãàäêà - åñëè îí äíåì ìèðíûé àáðèêîñ, à íî÷üþ âîîðóæåííûé óðþê - îí öèâèë èëè êòî?
 óñëîâèÿõ, êîãäà íåòó ÷åòêîãî äåëåíèÿ íà öèâèëîâ è íåöèâèëîâ, ïðîâåñòè ãðàíèöó ìåæäó ïàðòèçàíàìè è òåððîðèñòàìè íåâîçìîæíî. Àíàëîãè÷íî è ìåæäó âîåííîé îïåðàöèåé è âîåííûì ïðåñòóïëåíèåì (âòîðàÿ âåòêà âàøåé äèàãðàììû).
>Íàñ÷åò êîìáàòàíòîâ è ò.ä. Âñå ýòî î÷åíü õîðîøî, ïîêà åñòü ãîñóäàðñòâî, îáåñïå÷èâàþùåå ôîðìîé è ñàíêöèåé. À åñëè åãî, îòäåëüíîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà, íåò - óæå íåò èëè åùå íåò? Åñëè óñòàíîâëåí îêêóïàöèîííûé ðåæèì?
Ìåæäó ïðî÷èì, ïðåñëîâóòàÿ Ãààãñêàÿ êîíâåíöèÿ êàê ðàç íà ýòîò ñ÷åò âûäâèãàåò òðåáîâàíèå (öèò. ïî ïàìÿòè, òî÷íûé òåêñò èñêàòü ëåíü) ÷òî ÷òîáû ïàðòèçàíû, îïîë÷åíöû è ïð. èìåëè ïðàâî òðåáîâàòü îáõîæäåíèÿ ñ ñîáîþ â ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ êîíâåíöèåé, à íå êàê ñ áàíäèòàìè è ìàðîäåðàìè, îíè äîëæíû "cleanly identify themselves as [combatants]" - õîòÿ áû è òîé æå ïîâÿçêîé íà ëáó (ñð. íàïðèìåð "âîññòàíèå êðàñíûõ ïîâÿçîê" â Êèòàå). È ïî òîé æå êîíâåíöèè, íåëüçÿ ëîæíî èäåíòèôèöèðîâàòü ñåáÿ êàê öèâèëà - òèïà, ñ÷èòàåòñÿ, âåðîëîìñòâî. Òî åñòü ãëàâíîå - íå ñàíêöèÿ ãîñóäàðñòâà, à èìåííî ÷åòêàÿ èäåíòèôèêàöèÿ. È ýòî ëîãè÷íî è òîëüêî ïîñëå êîíñòàòàöèè ýòîãî (ëèáî ÷åãî-òî äðóãîãî, íî âñå-òàêè äàþùåãî ÷åòêîå îïðåäåëåíèå îòëè÷èÿ öèâèëà îò íåöèâèëà) âàøå îïðåäåëåíèå ñòàíîâèòñÿ ïðåäìåòíûì.
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Date: 2001-10-19 07:17 am (UTC)Êîíå÷íî; è òî÷íî òàê æå íåëüçÿ ïðîâåñòè îäíîçíà÷íóþ ãðàíèöó ìåæäó ðàçëè÷íûìè êàòåãîðèÿìè óãîëîâíûõ ïðåñòóïëåíèé.
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Date: 2001-10-19 08:48 am (UTC)Ïðîáëåìà âåäü â òîì, ÷òî èìååò ìåñòî î÷åâèäíîå çëîóïîòðåáëåíèå ïîíÿòèÿìè - êîãäà íåïðàâèëüíàÿ òåðìèíîëîãèÿ èñïîëüçóåòñÿ íå â ïîãðàíè÷íîì ñëó÷àå, à â ñàìîì ÷òî íè íà åñòü îò÷åòëèâî ïðîòèâîïîëîæíîì.
Èìåííî ïîýòîìó óáèéñòâî èçðàèëüñêîãî ìèíèñòðà ÍÅ ÿâëÿåòñÿ äåéñòâèåì òîãî æå ïîðÿäêà, ÷òî âçðûâ â äèñêîòåêå. ×òî íèñêîëüêî íå çàòðàãèâàåò âîïðîñà îá îòâåòíîé ðåàêöèè. Âåäü â îòâåò íà íàïàäåíèå íà ñâîèõ âîåííûõ ñòðàíû îáúÿâëÿþò âîéíó, ÷òî íèêîãî íå óäèâëÿåò.
Íî ìíå êàæåòñÿ, ÷òî ó íàñ òóò ðàçíîãëàñèé íåò.